The History of Tatars I: the Volga Bulgaria

Tatar history has often been misrepresented, with Russian historians focusing on conquests and conflicts, neglecting cultural and political development. Challenges include distortions and the issue of the "Tatar-Mongols" ethnonym. Tatar history, marked by cultural continuity, transition to settled life, and key moments like the Golden Horde's emergence and acceptance of Islam, deserves a broader perspective. By the early 20th century, aspirations for statehood in the Republic of Tatarstan highlighted the need for understanding Russia's indigenous peoples.

Peoples of the Eurasian Steppe

🐎 During the Bronze Age in the Eurasian steppe, cultural and technological advancements paved the way for nomadic cultures in the Iron Age. This period also saw the development of Zoroastrianism. The Scythians and Sarmatians from the Volga-Ural region played a role in shaping Eastern European societies during the Great Greek Colonization.

Between 1,000 BCE and the first half of the first millennium CE, various linguistic groups, including Turkic-speaking peoples, migrated across the region. The nomadic Xiongnu, originally from the Altai area north of China, were defeated, leading to the formation of The Hun Empire. The Huns under Attila's rule had a significant presence in the Caucasus, forming alliances and engaging in conflicts.

In the late 6th century, the Khazar state was established, marking the beginning of Turkic influence in the Caucasus. European Avars migrated during the late 6th century and played a role in Byzantine politics but disappeared from historical records in the late 8th and early 9th centuries.

The origins of Bulgarian tribes in Southeastern Europe's steppes remain debated. By the early 5th century, Oghuz tribes, including the Bulgars, migrated to the Volga-Don steppes and the Black Sea region due to the emergence of the Juan-Juan Khanate in Central Asia. 

🌄 The Turkic Khaganate, formed in 542 AD, saw the rise of Turkic-speaking tribes that greatly influenced socio-political, linguistic, and religious aspects. Descendants of the Xiongnu played a key role in establishing Turkic independence in 534 AD. The Tatar tribes, particularly the "Otuz-Tatars," are credited as founders.

Chinese sources categorized Tatars into three groups: White Tatars, residing as farmers just beyond the Great Wall of China; Black Tatars, nomads situated in present-day Mongolia; and Wild Tatars, living in the forests of South Siberia without khans.

Stretching from Manchuria to the Bosporus Cimmerius and the Great Silk Road, the Turkic Khaganate faced internal conflicts. In 603, it split into the Western and Eastern Turkic Khaganates due to internal strife and Chinese invasions.

The Western Turkic Khaganate expanded westward, campaigning against Sasanian Persians with Byzantine support. Meanwhile, the Karluks abandoned Turkic Khaganate ambitions, leading to the rise of the Karakhanid state in Central Asia.

The ancient Turkic social hierarchy was based on noble clans, wealth, and lineage, with livestock ownership symbolizing status. Shared religious and cultural elements, such as the worship of the supreme god Tengri and a common pantheon of deities, fostered cultural and religious unity in Inner Asia.

📜 A Tatar state existed in Gansu (Northwest China) and Eastern Turkestan from the 9th to the 12th centuries. During the Song period, "Tatars" referred to Mongols, revealing the complex pre-Mongol history of Tatars in Central Asia, despite the Mongols never calling themselves "Tatar."

Volga Bulgaria and the Great Steppe

Diving into the rich history of Volga Bulgaria reveals a captivating narrative shaped by interactions among tribes and empires. The journey begins with the foundation of Great Bulgaria in 635 AD near the Black Sea by the descendants of the Western Turkic Khaganate. The peak of its power was during Khan Kubrat's era. However, internal divisions and Khazar pressure led to the decline of Great Bulgaria after Kubrat's passing. His sons brought their tribes to the Balkans and the Middle Volga, establishing the First Bulgarian Empire (modern-day Bulgaria) under Kubrat’s third son Asparukh. Kotrag, Kubrat's second son, went North and founded the Volga Bulgaria.

The 9th and 10th centuries in Volga Bulgaria were marked by influential leadership and a complex political landscape. This period saw a blending of cultures in the Middle Volga region during the Bulgar era, integrating local Finno-Ugric peoples and the Chuvash, shaping their identities through cultural and linguistic exchanges.

Influenced by Turkic tribes fleeing Khazar (who were mostly Jewish) invasions, the Bulgar state accepted Islam in 922, emphasizing the importance of the Great Volga trade route for cultural interactions. The social structure of Volga Bulgaria evolved, incorporating elements from various cultures and resulting in distinctive social hierarchies.

The region boasted over 170 medieval sites, such as Bilyar, Bulgar, and Suvar, with diverse purposes and architectural influences. Rural settlements gradually emerged along riverbanks, featuring various village types, predominantly characterized by semi-subterranean housing reflecting an agrarian lifestyle.

🏺 The pre-Mongol Volga Bulgaria thrived on diversified agriculture, livestock farming, and advancements in blacksmithing and metallurgy. Colored metalworking, particularly copper and bronze, played a significant role, possibly influenced by imports from the Permian region. The cities served as vibrant centers of craftsmanship, encompassing glassblowing, pottery, and construction. This was a hub of international trade, employing unique trade tokens like squirrel furs and foreign coins. The Great Volga Route facilitated connections between diverse cultures, evident in archaeological findings of trade tools such as imitation Kufic dirhams and silver bars, offering a window into the rich history of trade and cultural exchange.

🏹 In the medieval era, Volga Bulgaria's armaments transitioned from swords to maces and chainmail, influenced by the West and the Near East. Their military shifted strategies towards defense, showcasing tactical sophistication and hierarchical structures, particularly evident in the 1183 defensive fight against Russian attacks and later adaptations against the Mongols in 1223. 

Bulgaria adopted diplomatic customs reminiscent of Islamic and Turkic traditions, engaging in ceremonies and exchanges typical of these cultures, and fostering alliances with various groups along the Silk Road. The relationship between Volga Bulgaria and Kievan Rus was intricate, defined by territorial disputes, religious differences, and intermittent clashes, significantly impacting the region's politics for nearly two centuries. Vsevolod the Big Nest of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus waged several wars on Volga Bulgaria, notably besieging Bilyar in 1183, intensifying anti-Bulgarian sentiments. Economic connections shaped political loyalties in the ongoing ideological and military conflicts between Volga Bulgaria and the northeastern Russian principalities, involving the Mordvin lands, until temporary peace in 1229.

The migration of the Pechenegs beyond the Volga to the Dnipro and Donets rivers around 895 marked the first step toward the formation of statehood among these nomadic tribes. Their alliances and conflicts with the Rus, Byzantines, Bulgarians, and Guts led to displacements and cultural contrasts in Eastern Europe. 

The descendants of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, – The Kipchaks (Polovtsians), Kimeks, and Cumans, dominated the steppe regions from Altai to Eastern Europe, leading to cultural exchanges and territorial shifts. They established the Kimek Khaganate within the regions of present-day Kazakhstan and South Siberia. The Kimek Khaganate's strength dwindled due to the influence of Mongol tribes, prompting the westward migration of the Kipchaks. The rich nomadic heritage, burials, and artifacts of the Kipchaks illustrate their societal dynamics and interactions with various tribes, influencing Eastern European history and cultural development.

🌙 Islam's spread was portrayed not just through military conquests but also through trade routes, diplomacy, and quiet adoptions. The Crusades had contrasting impacts: cultural growth in Western Europe and marked devastation in the Middle East, altering the course of progress. Despite orthodox opposition, Sufism's emergence offered a unique path to divine understanding and bridged the gap between people and the divine in the Islamic world.

In the Middle Volga region, a blend of Tengrism, potential Christian influences, and the emergence of Islam played a significant role in the political and cultural consolidation of Turkic-Bulgar tribes under Almış, prompting the establishment of a unified religious system. Islam's spread was catalyzed by both internal dynamics and trade connections with the Samanid Empire (Persianate Sunni Muslim empire). The prevalence of Muslim burials and the absence of pagan sites indicate the complete embrace of Islam, leading to a distinct Turkic-Muslim culture in the region.

The use of the runic script persisted in the Bulgar region alongside the transition to symbolic forms, but its significance declined after the official adoption of the Arabic alphabet in 922 AD, coinciding with the region's acceptance of Islam. The Arabic script's spread was driven by trade and cultural assimilation, marking a parallel between literacy and the Islamization of society, much like other medieval states embracing world religions. The sacred significance of the Arabic alphabet became a fundamental element in Volga Bulgaria's Islamic cultural and educational practices, evident in amulets, educational institutions, and the influence of Eastern learning centers.

🔬 The scholarly roots in Volga Bulgaria showcased progress in mathematics, architecture, metrology, astronomy, geography, alchemy, and medicine, influenced by broader Islamic and Eastern practices. Their knowledge spanned diverse fields such as architectural design based on anthropometric and geometric principles, astronomical observations with instruments like the astrolabe, and the production of complex remedies, showcasing the Bulgars' adeptness in science and medicine.

Bulgar folklore, rooted in magical beliefs and practical wisdom, emphasized cultural values through myths. Legends about Alıp, massive figures associated with superhuman traits, became tales of reverence and fear. The narrative "Qıssa-i Yosıf" by Qol Ğali left a lasting impact on Tatar culture and subsequent Turkic poetry.

🕌 Volga Bulgaria's architecture intertwined wood and stone, reflecting Anatolian and Caucasus designs and hinting at cultural exchanges. The art of the Volga Bulgars from the 10th to the 12th centuries represents a transition from pre-Islamic symbolic motifs to the influence of Islamic aesthetics. It evolved from stylized, non-realistic depictions of symbolic animals to the adoption of Islamic-inspired floral and geometric designs.

Travelers like Ibn Fadlan offered limited anthropological descriptions of Volga Bulgaria, noting the Bulgars' similarity to Near Eastern inhabitants. Sparse details hint at a mixed Europoid-Mongoloid population, with potential assimilation over time diminishing Mongoloid traits, especially among the aristocracy, suggesting social distinctions.

Historical records on the language of Volga Bulgaria, particularly al-Kashgari's writings, suggest a prevalent Turkic base shaped by interactions with various Turkic-speaking tribes like the Suvars. However, linguistic diversity and influences from languages like Karakhanid complicate defining a distinct Bulgar language. During the latter half of the 13th-14th centuries, epitaphs were written in Arabic, incorporating Turkic phrases and sometimes entire sentences. Many contemporary Western scholars highlight that linguistic relics considered as Volga Bulgarian are those that paved the way for modern Chuvash, which is most closely related to it and which is classified as the only surviving member of a separate Oghur-Turkic branch of the Turkic languages, to which Bulgar is also considered to have belonged.

The formation of the Volga Bulgars involved significant interaction with Ugric and Finnish groups, evident in archaeological discoveries showing hybrid cultural elements. Yet, understanding their ethnic formation and mindset is challenging due to uncertainties in historical sources and the struggle to link specific archaeological cultures with particular ethnic groups.

Islam played a pivotal role in uniting the Bulgars, tying into their identity, and influencing their cultural and religious landscape between the 11th and 12th centuries. Volga Bulgaria, engaging with diverse ethnicities and states, stood as a major Muslim civilization, thriving in economic, cultural, and diplomatic exchanges. Despite the resistance, the devastating Mongol invasion led to the obliteration of Bulgar cities, particularly Bilyar, in 1236.

🌱 Discussions about the ethnogenesis and ethnic history of the Tatar people date back to the late 18th century, with differing viewpoints that don't achieve consensus. One theory suggests that the Tatar ethnic foundation was the Bulgar ethnicity, formed in the Middle Volga and the Urals around the 8th century. For a considerable period, this theory was widely recognized. Another viewpoint contends that Tatars have Mongol-Tatar origins, emphasizing the migration of Tatar-Mongol nomadic groups to Europe. A third theory focuses on Turkic-Tatar origins, underlining the Turkic roots of the modern Tatar population. Currently, this theory is gaining more acceptance.